MODEL-MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS

. Grammar Translation Method
Pada metode Grammar (the Grammar Method) siswa mempelajari kaidah-kaidah gramatika bersama-sama dengan daftar atau kelompok-kelompok kosakata. Kata-kata tersebut kemudian dijadikan frase atau kalimat berdasarkan kaidah yang telah dipelajari.Pada metode ini penguasaan kaidah-kaidah lebih diutamakan daripada penerapannya. Ketrampilan lisan, seperti pelafalan, tidak dilakukan. Metode ini mudah penerapannya karena guru tidak harus fasih berbicara bahasa yang harus dipelajari, sedangkan evaluasi dan pengawasannya juga tidak sulit.
Metode Translation (the Translation Method) berisi kegiatan-kegiatan penerjemahan teks yang dilakukan dari hal mudah ke hal yang sulit. Pertama dari bahasa sasaran ke bahasa ibu dan sebaliknya. Penerjemahan teks dilakukan dengan cara penerjemahan kata per kata maupun gagasan per gagasan termasuk ungkapan-ungkapan idiomatic.
Perpaduan dua metode tersebut di atas melahirkan metode Grammar-Translation (the Grammar Translation Method / GTM) yang memiliki cirri-ciri sebagai berikut:
1. Pengajaran dimulai dengan pemberian kaidah-kaidah gramatika dan mengacu pada kerangka gramatika formal.
2. Kosakata yang diajarkan bergantung pada teks yang dipilih sehingga tidak ada kesinambungan antara kelompok atau daftar kosakata yang satu dengan yang lainnya.
3. Penghafalan dan penerjemahan merupakan ciri kegiatan yang menonjol, yaitu menghafal dan menerjemahkan kosakata dan kaidah gramatika.
4. Pelafalan tidak diajarkan atau sangat dibatasi hanya pada beberapa aspek saja.
5. Lebih menekankan pada ketrampilan membaca dan menulis daripada menyimak dan berbicara.
Dari uraian di atas, GTM dapat didefinisikan sebagai metode pengajaran bahasa melalui analisis kaidah-kaidah bahasa secara rinci dan diikuti dengan penerapan pengetahuan tentang kaidah-kaidah tersebut untuk tujuan penerjemahan kalimat-klimat dan teks-teks, baik dari bahasa sasaran ke bahasa ibu atau sebaliknya.
Ciri-ciri GTM:
1. menekankan ketepatan; siswa diharapkan dapat mencapai standar yang tinggi dalam penerjamahan.
2. meruntutkan butir atau kaidah-kaidah gramatika bahasa sasaran dengan ketat dalam silabus.
3. menggunakan bahasa ibu pelajar sebagai medium instruksi
Teknik-teknik dalam Grammar Translation Method:
1. Translation of a literary passage                         6. Fill-in-the-blanks
2. Reading comprehension questions                     7. Memorization
3. Antonyms/Synonyms                                         8. Use words in sentences
4. Cognates                                                             9. Composition
5. Deductive application of rule
II. Direct Method (DM)
Pengajaran langsung merupakan revisi dari Grammar Translation Method karena metode ini
dianggap tidak dapat membuat siswa dapat berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan bahasa asing yang
sedang dipelajari. Dalam proses pembelajaran, penerjemahan dilarang digunakan.
Proses pembelajaran dengan DM, guru menyuruh siswa untuk membaca nyaring. Kemudian, guru memberi pertanyaan dalam bahasa yang sedang dipelajari. Selama proses pembelajaran berlangsung, realia seperti peta atau benda yang sesungguhnya bisa dipergunakan. Guru bisa menggambar atau mendemonstrasikan.
Teknik-teknik dalam Direct Method:
1. Reading aloud
2. Question and answer exercise
3. Getting students to self-correct
4. Conversation practice
5. Fill-in-the-blanks
6. Dictation
7. Map drawing
8. Paragraph writing
III. The Audio-Lingual Method
Istilah audio-lingualisme pertama-tama dikemukakan oleh Prof. Nelson Brooks pada tahun 1964.
Metode ini menyatakan diri sebagai metode yang paling efektif dan efisien dalam pembelajaran
bahasa asing dan mengklaim sebagai metode yang telah mengubah pengajaran bahasa dari hanya
sebuah kiat ke sebuah ilmu. Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) merupakan hasil kombinasi pandangan
dan prinsip-prinsip Linguistik Struktural, Analisis Kontrastif, pendekatan Aural-Oral, dan psikologi
Behavioristik.
Dasar pemikiran ALM mengenai bahasa, pengajaran, dan pembelajaran bahasa adalah sebagai
berikut:
1. Bahasa adalah lisan, bukan tulisan
2. Bahasa adalah seperangkat kebiasaan
3. Ajarkan bahasa dan bukan tentang bahasa
4. Bahasa adalah seperti yang diucapkan oleh penutur asli
5. Bahasa satu dengan yang lainnya itu berbeda
Richards & Rodgers (1986;51 dalam Prayogo, 1998:9) menambahkan beberapa prinsip pembelajaran yang telah menjadi dasar psikologi audio-lingualisme dan penerapannya sebagai berikut:
1. Pembelajaran bahasa asing pada dasarnya adalah suatu proses pembentukan kebiasaan yang  mekanistik
2. Ketrampilan berbahasa dipelajari lebih efektif jika aspek-aspek yang harus dipelajari pada bahasa sasaran  disajikan dalam bentuk lisan sebelumdilihat dalam bentuk tulis.
3. Bentuk-bentuk analogi memberikan dasar yang lebih baik bagi pembelajar bahasa daripada bentuk analisis, generalisasi, dan pembedaan-pembedaan lebih baik daripada penjelasan tentang kaidah-kaidah.
4. Makna kata-kata yang dimiliki oleh penutur asli dapat dipelajari hanya dalam konteks bahasa dan kebudayaan dan tidak berdiri sendiri.
Richards & Rogers juga mengatakan bahwa ketrampilan bahasa diajarkan dengan urutan: menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. Bentuk kegiatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran ALM pada dasarnya adalah percakapan dan latihan-latihan (drills) danlatihan pola (pattern practice). Percakapan berfungsi sebagai alat untuk meletakkan struktur-struktur kunci pada konteksnya dan sekaligus memberikan ilustrasi situasi dimana struktur-struktur tersebut digunakan oleh penutur asli, jadi juga sebagai penerapan aspek kultural bahasa sasaran. Pengulangan dan penghafalan menjadi kegiatan yang dominan pada metode ini. Pola-pola gramatika tertentu pada percakapan dipilih untuk dijadikan kegiatan latihan pola. Kegiatan-kegiatan pembelajaran berdasarkan ALM adalah: repetition, inflection, relplacement, restatement, completion, transposition, expansion, contraction, transformation, integration, rejoinders, dan restoration.
PROSEDUR PEMBELAJARANMENGGUNAKAN
ALM:
Kegiatan Guru
1.Menjadi model pada semua tahapan  pembelajaran.
2.Menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebanyak mungkin dan bahasa ibu sedikit mungkin.
3.Melatih ketrampilan menyimak dan berbicara siswa tanpa bahasa tulis dulu.
4.Mengajarkan struktur melalui latihan pola bunyi, urutan, bentuk-bentuk, dan bukan melalui penjelasan.
5.Memberikan bentuk-bentuk tulis bahasa sasaran setelah bunyi-bunyi benar-benar dikuasai siswa.
6.Meminimalkan pemberian kosakata kepada siswa sebelum semua struktur umum dikuasai.
7.Mengajarkan kosakata dalam konteks.
Kegiatan Siswa
1 Mendengarkan sebuah percakapan sebagai model (guru atau kaset) yang berisi struktur kunci yang menjadi fokus pembelajaran, mereka mengulangi setiap baris percakapan tersebut secara individu maupun bersama-sama, menghafalkannya dan siswa tidak melihat buku.
2. Mengganti dialog dengan setting tempat atau yang lainnya sesuai dengan selera siswa.
3. Berlatih struktur kunci dari percakapan secara bersama-sama dan kemudian secara individual.
4. Mengacu ke buku teks dan menindaklanjuti
dengan kegiatan membaca, menulis atau kosakata yang berdasarkan percakapan yang ada, menulis dimulai dalam bentuk kegiatan menyalin dan kemudian dapat ditingkatkan..
Teknik-teknik pengajaran dalam ALM (Audio-Lingual Method):
1. Dialog Memorization                                              7. Transformation Drill
2. Backward Build-up (expansion) Drill                    8. Question-and-Answer Drill
3. Repetition Drill                                                       9. Use of Minimal Pairs
4. Chain Drill                                                             10.Complete the Dialog
5. Single-slot Substitution Drill                                 11.Grammar Game
6. Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
IV. THE SILENT WAY
Ahli-ahli psikologi kognitif dan bahasa transformasi-generatif beranggapan bahwa belajar bahasa tidak perlu melalui pengulangan. Mereka percaya bahwa pebelajar dapat menciptakan ungkapan-ungkapan yang belum pernah didengar. Selanjutnya mereka berpendapat bahwa pembelajaran bahasa tidak hanya menirukan tapi aturan-aturan berbahasa dapat membantu mereka menggunakan bahasa yang dipelajari.
Dalam proses pembelajarannya, guru hanya menunjuk ke suatu chart yang berisi dengan vocal konsonan. Guru menunjuk beberapa kali dengan diam. Setelah beberapa saat guru hanya memberi contoh cara pengucapannya. Kemudian menunjuk siswa untuk melafalkan sampai benar. Dalam proses pembelajaran guru banyak berdiam diri, dia hanya mengarahkan/menunjuk pada materi pembelajaran.
Teknik-teknik The Silent Way:
1. Sound-Color Chart                       6. Word Chart
2. Teacher’s Silence                        7. Fidel Chart
3. Peer Correction                            8. Structured Feedback
4. Rods
5. Self-Correction Gestures
V. SUGGESTOPEDIA
Georgi Losanov percaya bahwa dalam proses pembelajaran ada kendala psikologi. Suggestopedia merupakan aplikasi sugesti dalam pedagogi dimana perasaan pebelajar mengalami kegagalan dapat dihilangkan. Dalam model pembelajaran suggestopedia, kendala psikologi pebelajar dapat diatasi..
Dalam mengaplikasikan model pembelajaran ini, ruang kelas ditata sedemikian rupa sehingga berbeda dengan kelas biasa. Siswa duduk di sofa dalam bentuk setengah lingkaran dengan penerangan yang remang-remang. Beberapa poster yang berhubungan dengan materi pembelajaran dipasang di tembok. Guru menyapa dalam bahasa ibu kemudian meyakinkan siswa/pebelajar kalau nereka tidak perlu berusaha untuk belajar tapi pembelajaran akan berlangsung secara alami. Guru memutar musik klasik kemudian mengarahkan pebelajar untuk rileks dengan cara menarik nafas panjang. Selanjutnya guru mengajak pebelajar berimajinasi tentang materi yang sedang dipelajari. Ketika mereka membuka mata, mereka bermain peran. Setelah itu, guru membaca sambil memperdengarkan musik. Guru tidak memberi pekerjaan rumah.
Teknik-teknik dalam Suggestopedia:
1. Classroom Set-up                                    6. Role-Play
2. Peripheral Learning                                7.  First Concert
3. Positive Suggestion                                 8. Second Concert
4. Visualization                                           9.  Primary Activation
5. Choose a New Identity                           10.Secondary Activation
VI. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
Metode ini mempercayai prinsip ‘whole persons’ yang artinya guru tidak hanya memperhatikan perasaan dan kepandaian siswa tapi juga hubungan dengan sesama siswa. Menurut Curran (1986:89) siswa merasa tidak nyaman pada situasi yang baru. Dengan memahami prasaan ketakutan dan sensitif siswa guru dapat menghilangkan perasaan negatif siswa menjadi energi positif untuk belajar.
Kursi disusun melingkar dengan sebuah meja di tengah. Ada sebuah tape recorder di atas meja. Guru menjelaskan tujuan pembelajaran. Guru mnyuruh siswa membuat dialog dalam bahasa Inggris. Jika siswa tidak mengetahui guru membantu. Percakapan siswa direkam. Kemudian, hasil rekaman di tulis dalam bentuk transkrip dalam bahasa Inggrisdan bahasa ibu. Setelah itu kaidah-kaidah kebahasaan didiskusikan.
Teknik-teknik Community Language Learning:
1. Tape-recording Student Conversation                            4. Reflective Listening
2. Transcription                                                                   5. Human Computer
3. Reflection on Experience                                                6. Small Group Tasks
VII. THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD
Metode ini juga disebut ‘the comprehension approach’ yang mendekatkan pada pentingnya ‘listening comprehension’. Pada tahap awal pembelajaran bahasa asing terfokus pada pemahaman mendengarkan. Hal ini berdasarkan pada hasil observasi bagaimana anak-anak belajar bahasa ibu. Seorang bayi mendengarkan suara disekelilingnya selama berbulan-bulan sebelum ia dapat menyebut satu kata. Tidak ada seorangpun yang menyuruh bayi untuk berbicara. Seorang anak berbicara ketika ia sudah siap melakukannya.
Pada Natural Approach (yang dikembangkan oleh Krashen & Terrel), siswa mendengarkan guru yang berkomunikasi  dengan menggunakan bahasa asing mulai awal proses pembelajaran. Guru dapat membantu siswa untuk memahami materi dengan menggunakan gambar dan beberapa kata dalam bahasa ibu. Natural Approach hampir sama dengan Direct Method. Pada Total Physical Response (TPR), siswa mendengarkan dan merespon instruksi lisan guru. Bentuk instruksi yang diberikan seperti ‘Turn around’, ‘Sit down’, ‘Walk’, ‘Stop’, ‘Jump’, dsb.

Teknik-teknik dalam the Total Physical Response Method:
1. Using Commands to Direct Method
2. Role Reversal
3. Action sequence
VIII. THE  COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH (Communicative Language Teaching)
Mumbly (1978) menyebut Pendekatan Komunikatif sebagai ‘Communicative Syllabus’.
Widdowson menyebutnya sebagai ‘Communicative Approach’, sedangkan Richards & Rogers
menyebutnya ‘Communicative Language Teaching’ (CLT). Istilah-istilah seperti Notionol-
Functional Approach atau Functional Approach.
Communicative Aproach/ CA (Communicative Language Teaching) berasal dari perubahan
pada tradisi pengajaran bahasa di Inggris pada akhir tahun 1960 dan kemunculannya dipertegas
oleh:
1. Kegagalan Audio Lingual Method yang menghasilkan penutur-penutur bahasa asing atau baha ysa kedua yang baik dan fasih tetapi tidak mampu menggunakan bahasa yang dipelajari dalam interaksi yang bermakna.
2. Pandangan Chomsky tentang kreatifitas dan keunikan kalimat sebagai ciri dasar sebuah
bahasa.
CA bertujuan untuk menjadikan kompetensi komunikatif (communicative competence) sebagai tujuan pengajaran bahasa dan untuk mengembangkan teknik-teknik dan prosedur pengajaran ketrampilan bahasa yang didasarkan atas aspek saling bergantung antara bahasa dan komunikasi. Kompetensi Komunikatif mencakup kompetensi gramatika, sosiolinguistik, dan strategi. Kemampuan komunikatif berbahasa (communicative language ability) meliputi pengetahuan atau kompetensi dan kecakapan dalam penerapan kompetensi tersebut dalam penggunaan bahasa yang komunikatif, kontekstual, dan sesuai.
Beberapa pemerian mengenai kompetensi komunikatif  secara umum berpandangan bahwa makna profisiensi dalam sebuah bahasa tidak hanya sekedar mengetahui sistem kaidah-kaidah gramatikal (fonologi, sintaksis, kosakata, dan semantik). Fokus metode ini pada dasarnya adalah elaborasi dan implementasi program dan metodologi yang menunjang kemampuan bahasa fungsional melalui pertisipasi pembelajaran dalam kegiatan-kegiatan komunikatif.
Di bawah ini adalah perbandingan antara Audio Lingual Method dan Communicative Approach:
Audio Lingual Method                                                           Communicative Approach
- Lebih memperhatikan struktur dan bentuk daripada makna. - Makna adalah yang utama
- Menuntut penghafalan dialog yang berisi struktur-struktur tertentu. - Jika dialog digunakan, maka difokuskan pada fungsi-fungsi komunikatif dan tidak dihafal.
- Butir-butir bahasa tidak harus kontekstual - Kontekstualisasi menjadi premis dasar.
- Pembelajaran bahasa adalah pembelajaran struktur, bunyi, dan kosakata. - Belajar bahasa adalah belajar untuk berkomunikasi.
- Penguasaan atau overlearning menjadi tujuan. - Komunikasi efektif menjadi tujuan.
- Drilling menjadi teknik utama pengajaran. - Driling dapat dilakukan tetapi tidak menjadi yang utama dalam pembelajaran.
- Pelafalan seperti penutur asli menjadi tujuan. - Pelafalan yang dapat dipahami menjadi tujuan
- Penjelasan tentang gramatika dihindari. - Asalkan membantu pebelajar cara atau teknik apapun dapat digunakan; bervariasi berdasarkan umur, minat, motivasi pebelajar, dll.
- Kegiatan komunikatif dilaksanakan setelah proses panjang drilling dan latihan-latihan. - Usaha pebelajar untuk berkomunikasi didorong dari saat awal pembelajaran.
- Penggunaan bahasa ibu dihindari. - Jika diperlukan penggunaan bahasa ibu pebelajar dibenarkan.
- Penerjemahan dihindari pada tingkat-tingkat awal. - Penerjemahan dapat dilakukan bila pebelajar mendapatkan manfaat dari pelaksanaannya.
- Membaca dan menulis ditunda sampai ketrampilan berbicara dikuasai. - Membaca dan menulis dapat dimulai dari hari pertama pembelajaran jika dikehendaki.
- Sistem bahasa sasaran dipelajari melalui pengajaran nyata tentang pola-pola system bahasa tersebut. - Sistem bahasa sasaran paling baik dipelajari melalui proses usaha untuk berkomunikasi.
- Kompetensi bahasa menjadi tujuan yang ingin dicapai. - Kompetensi komunikatif menjadi tujuan yang ingin dicapai, yaitu kemampuan untuk menggunakan system bahasa secara efektif dan efisien.
- Variasi-variasi bahasa ditekankan, tetapi cukup diketahui oleh pebelajar. - Variasi bahasa menjadi konsep utama di dalam bahan dan metode yang dipakai.
- Urutan penyajian unit-unit pelajaran ditentukan hanya berdasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip kerumitan bahasa. - Urutan penyajian unit-unit ditentukan berdasarkan pertimbangan isi, fungsi, dan makna yang dapat tetap menjaga minat pebelajar.
- Guru mengawasi siswa dan menjaga agar mereka tidak melakukan kegiatan yang bertentangan dengan teori pembelajaran. - Guru membantu pebelajar dengan berbagai cara yang dapat memberi motivasi kepada mereka dalam belajar bahasa.
- Bahasa itu adalah kebiasaan, sehingga kesalahan harus dihindari sama sekali. - Bahasa diperoleh oleh seseorang sering melalui ‘trial and error’.
- Ketepatan penggunaan bahasa formal menjadi tujuan utama. - Kefasihan dan bahasa yang dapat diterima merupakan tujuan pembelajaran.
- Siswa diharapkan berinteraksi dengan system bahasa. - Siswa diharapkan berinteraksi dengan orang lain.
- Guru harus menyatakan bahasa yang harus digunakan oleh siswa. - Guru tidak dapat mengetahui bahasa yang akan digunakan oleh siswa.
- Motivasi intrinsic akan timbul dari munculnya minat pada struktur bahasa sasaran. - Motivasi intrinsic akan timbul dari minat terhadap apa yang dikomunikasikan oleh bahasa sasaran.

POETRY

A. Definition of Poetry
1. Poetry is piece of literature written by a poet in meter or verse expressing various emotions which are expressed by the use of variety of different techniques including metaphors, similes and onomatopoeia which are explained in the above definitions and different examples. The emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the use of different techniques such as repetition, meter and rhyme are what are commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose and explained in the above examples. Prose can be defined as ordinary speech or writing without any metrical structure. poems often make heavy use of imagery and word association to quickly convey emotions.
Poetry in English and other modern European languages often use different rhyme schemes and these technique is most often seen in children's poems such as Nursery Rhymes making them easy to remember. Other examples of different types of poetry which use rhyme are limericks. Poets make use of sound in different types of poetry by employing different kinds of techniques called Alliteration, Assonance, Consonance and Euphony all of which are explained in the above examples of different types of poetry.

2. Poetry(from the Greekpoiesis — ποίησις — with a broad meaning of a "making", seen also in such terms as "hemopoiesis"; more narrowly, the making of poetry) is a form of literary art which uses the aesthetic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning.
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the SumerianEpic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the SanskritVedas, ZoroastrianGathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from more objectively-informative, prosaic forms of writing. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a fundamental creative act employing language.
Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke emotive responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter; however, there are traditions, such as Biblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm. In today's increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages.

B. Types of Poetry
In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics. Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.
1. Narrative poetry
Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to human interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes. Much narrative poetry—such as Scottish and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems—is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales.
Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Fernando de Rojas, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson.

2. Epic poetry
Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons.[124] Examples of epic poems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied, Luís de Camões' OsLusíadas, the Cantar de Mio Cid, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki'sRamayana, Ferdowsi'sShahnama, Nizami (or Nezami)'s Khamse (Five Books), and the Epic of King Gesar. While the composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be written. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize to a great extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros.

3. Dramatic poetry
Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. Greek tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B.C., and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama, just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bianwen verse dramas in China, forerunners of Chinese Opera. East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh. Examples of dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nizami's two famous dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin, Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab, Rumi's Masnavi, Gorgani's tragedy of Vis and Ramin, and Vahshi's tragedy of Farhad.

4. Satirical poetry
Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal'ssatires.
The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a reference to Thomas Shadwell). Another master of 17th-century English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. Satirical poets outside England include Poland's IgnacyKrasicki, Azerbaijan's Sabir and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage.

5. Lyric poetry
Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Poems in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions. Notable poets in this genre include John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins, and Antonio Machado.

6. Elegy
An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term "elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poem of mourning. An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry.
Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius, Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, ChidiockTichborne, Edmund Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Milton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Turner Smith, William Cullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, EvgenyBaratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, Walt Whitman, Louis Gallet, Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, William Butler Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.

7. Verse fable
The fable is an ancient literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns.
Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, Vishnu Sarma, Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson, Biernat of Lublin, Jean de La Fontaine, IgnacyKrasicki, Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás de Iriarte, Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce.

8. Prose poetry
Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (a.k.a. the "short short story", "flash fiction"). While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and StéphaneMallarmé. Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals, such as The Prose Poem: An International Journal, Contemporary Haibun Online devoted to that genre.

9. Speculative poetry
Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry, (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major subclassification), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are 'beyond reality', whether via extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes seen as the "father of speculative poetry".

C. Elements of Poetry
1. Prosody
Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related. Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter.

2. Rhythm
The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed language. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French, Leonese, Galician and Spanish. English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages. Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most Subsaharan languages.
Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided). In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter. Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.
The chief device of ancient HebrewBiblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm. In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, departing tone, and entering tone.
The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence rather than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry. Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm.

3. Meter
In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. The number of metrical feet in a line are described using Greek terminology: tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet, for example. Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb". This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter", comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl". Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod. Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a number of poets, including William Shakespeare and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, respectively. The most common metrical feet in English are:
• iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. describe, Include, retract)
• trochee – one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. picture, flower)
• dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g.annotatean-no-tate)
• anapest – two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. comprehend com-pre-hend)
• spondee – two stressed syllables together (e.g. e-nough)
• pyrrhic – two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)
There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb, a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry.Languages which utilize vowel lengthor intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.
Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse. Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables.
There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language. Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress.

4. Metrical patterns
Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearean iambic pentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to the anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular.Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur, or occurs to a much lesser extent, in English.
Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:
• Iambic pentameter (John Milton in Paradise Lost, William Shakespeare in his Sonnets)
• Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad;Virgil, Aeneid)
• Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"; Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, Robert Frost, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening)
• Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")
• Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre)

5. Rhyme, alliteration, assonance
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element. They can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic.
Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme. The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.
Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas.
Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic. Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry. Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element.

6. Rhyming schemes
In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form. Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet. Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottavarima and terzarima. The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article.

7. Form
Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in free verse. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form; some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much such structures may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect.
Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and calligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section), as in the sonnet or haiku.

8. Lines and stanzas
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines.
Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone.
Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.
In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas.
In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.

9. Visual presentation
Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem. In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems.
With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition. At times, this complements the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing.

10. Diction
Poetic diction treats the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry. Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns, as favoured in much late-20th-century prosody, through to highly ornate uses of language, as in medieval and Renaissance poetry.
Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone. On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.
Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the West during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages. Other notables examples include the Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory.
Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku. Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a sombre tone to a poem, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes.

D. The Common Feet
The most common foot in English poetry is the iamb, consisting of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. Most poetry in English, including the blank verse of Shakespeare's plays, uses this foot. The iambic rhythm is natural to English because the language contains many two-syllable words accented on the second syllable.
The four most common feet in English poetry:
1. Iamb (adj. Iambic): one foot with one weak stress followed by one strong stress, as in the word “afraid”. Unstressed-stressed (upon, aware)
2. Trochee (adj. Trochaic): a foot with one strong stress followed by one weak stress, as in the word “heather”. Stressed-unstressed (poem, delhi)
3. Anapest (adj. Anapestic): a foot with two weak stresses followed by one strong stress, as in the word “disembark”. Unstressed-unstressed-stressed (Tennessee)
4. Dactyl (adj. Dactylic): a foot with one strong stress followed by two weak stresses, as in the word “solitude”. Stressed-unstressed-unstressed (Delaware)
5. Spondee: a foot with two strong stresses, as in the word “workday”
6. Pyrrhic: a foot with two weak stresses, as in the last foot of the word “unspeakably”
7. Amphibrach: a foot with a weak syllable, one strong syllable, and another weak syllable, as in the word “another”
8. Amphimacer: a foot with a strong syllable, one weak syllable, and another strong syllable, as in “up and down”

From the renaissance to the rise of free verse in the 20th century, iambic meter was the most common in english poetry, considered by many to be the meter closest to everyday speech.
Number of feet per line:
1. Monometer: verse written in one-foot lines:
Sound the Flute!
Now it’s mute.
Birds delight
Day and night.
- William Blake, Spring
2. Dimeter: verse written in two-foot lines:
O Rose thou art sick
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night
In the how ling storm:
Has found out thy bed
Of crim son joy:
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy.
- William Blake, “The Sick Rose”
3. Trimester: verse written in three-foot lines:
I went to the Gard en of Love
And saw what I never had seen:
William Blake, Spring
A Chap el was built in the midst,
Where I used to play on the green.
- William Blake, “The Garden of Love”
4. Tetrameter: verse written in four-foot lines:
I wand erthro each chart er’d street,
Near where the chart er’d Thames does flow,
And mark in every face I meet
Marks of
weakness, marks of woe.
- William Blake, “London”
5. Pentameter: verse written in five-foot lines:
And we are put on earth a litt le space,
That we may learn to bear the beams of love.
- William Blake, “The Little Black Boy”
6. Hexameter
7. Heptameter

BIOGRAPHY OF EZRA POUND

A. Biography of Ezra Pound
Ezra Loomis Pound (1885-1972) studied languages at the University of Pennsylvania, and befriended there the young William Carlos Williams (1883-1963), who gained later fame as a poet in New York's avant-garde circles. From 1903 to 1906 Pound studied Anglo-Saxon and Romance languages at Hamilton College. In 1907 his teaching career was cut short at Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana, when he had entertained an actress in his room. He helped Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot and James Joyce to publish their works in the magazines Egoist and Poetry. When he worked as W. B. Yeats' secretary, he started a correspondence with Joyce. Pound wrote on Joyce on various magazines, collected money for him, and even sent spare clothes for him. Pound also played crucial role in the cutting of Eliot's The Waste Land. Eliot dedicated to work to him, as ilmigliorfabbro ("the better maker"). Pound has been called the 'inventor' of Chinese poetry for our time. Beginning in 1913 with the notebooks of the Orientalist Ernest Fenollosa, he pursued a lifelong study of ancient Chinese texts, and translated among others the writings of Confucius. Pound's translations based on Fenollosa's notes, collected in Cathay (1915), are considered among the most beautiful of Pound's writings.
 Pound believed that poetry is the highest of arts. He challenged many of the common views of his time and spent 12 years in an American mental hospital in Washington, D. C., for the "criminally insane." He published over 70 books and translated Japanese plays and Chinese poetry. The Cantos, a series of poems which he wrote from 1920s throughout his life, are considered among his best works.
According to Katherine Anne Porter, "Pound was one of the most opinionated and unselfish men who ever lived, and he made friends and enemies everywhere by the simple exercise of the classic American constitutional right of free speech." ("The Letters of E. P.," 1907-1941, a book review in New York Times, 29 Oct. 1950).
In spite of the praise of his work, Pound was also at times profoundly anti-Semitic and an enthusiast for fascism preceding and during W. W. II, even to making radio broadcasts from Italy supporting the Axis powers. He was arrested in Europe by U. S. forces in 1945. He challenged many of the common views of his time and spent 12 years in an American mental hospital in Washington, D. C., for the "criminally insane." Pound died in Venice, Italy, on November 1, 1972.

B. Early Life
Pound was born in Hailey, Idaho Territory, the only child of Homer Loomis Pound (1858–1942) and Isabel Weston (1860–1948). Both parents' ancestors had emigrated from England in the 17th century. On his father's side, John Pound, a Quaker, sailed from England around 1650. His grandfather, Thaddeus Coleman Pound (1832–1914), was a retired Republican Congressman for north-west Wisconsin who had made and lost a fortune in the lumber business. His son Homer, Pound's father, had worked for Thaddeus until Thaddeus secured him an appointment as Register of the Government Land Office in Hailey.
On his mother's side Pound was descended from William Wadsworth, a Puritan who emigrated from England to Boston on the Lion in 1632. The Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York, and Harding Weston and Mary Parker produced Isabel Weston, Pound's mother. Harding apparently spent most of his life without work, so his brother, Ezra Weston and his wife, Frances, looked after Mary and Isabel.
Isabel was unhappy living in Hailey, and when her son was 18 months old she left with him to go back East. Homer followed them, and in 1889 Homer took a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint. The family moved to 417 Walnut Street in Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, then in July 1893 bought a six-bedroom house at 166 Fernbrook Avenue in the town of Wyncote, Pennsylvania.

C. Education
Pound's early education took place in a series of so-called dame schools, some of them run by Quakers: Miss Elliott's school in Jenkintown in 1892; the Misses Heacock'sChelten Hills school in Wyncote in 1893; and the Florence Ridpath school from 1894, which became the Wyncote Public School a year later. From 1898 until 1900 he attended the Cheltenham Military Academy, where the boys wore Civil War-style uniforms, and were taught military drilling, how to shoot, and the importance of submitting to authority. Pound was clever, independent-minded, conceited, and unpopular.
He knew early on that he wanted to be a poet. His first publication was on 7 November 1896 in the Jenkintown Times-Chronicle, a limerick about an American politician, William Jennings Bryan—by E.L. Pound, Wyncote, Aged 11 years: "There was a young man from the West, / He did what he could for what he thought best." His first trip overseas came two years later when he was 13, a three-month tour of Europe with his mother and Aunt Frances, who took him to England, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. He was admitted to the University of Pennsylvania's College of Liberal Arts in 1901 at the age of 15:
I resolved that at 30 I would know more about poetry than any man living, that I would know what was accounted poetry everywhere, what part of poetry was "indestructible," what part could not be lost by translation and—scarcely less important—what effects were obtainable in one language only and were utterly incapable of being translated.
In this search I learned more or less of nine foreign languages, I read Oriental stuff in translations, I fought every University regulation and every professor who tried to make me learn anything except this, or who bothered me with "requirements for degrees."
He met Hilda Doolittle at the University of Pennsylvania. She was the daughter of the professor of astronomy, and later became known as the poet H.D. Doolittle wrote that she felt her life was irrevocably intertwined with Pound's; she followed him to Europe in 1908, leaving her family, friends, and country for little benefit to herself, and became involved with Pound in developing the "Imagisme" movement in London. He asked her to marry him in the summer of 1907, though her father refused permission, and wrote several poems for her between 1905 and 1907, 25 of which he hand-bound and called "Hilda's Book". He was seeing two other women at the same time—Viola Baxter and Mary Moore—later dedicating a book of poetry, Personae (1909), to the latter. He asked Mary to marry him that summer too, but she turned him down
His parents and Frances Weston took him on another three-month European tour in 1902, after which he transferred to Hamilton College in Clinton, New York—possibly because of poor grades—where he studied the Provençal dialect with William Pierce Shephard, and Old English with Joseph D. Ibbotson. David Moody writes that it was at Hamilton with Shephard that he read Dante, and out of the discussions emerged the idea for a long poem in three parts—dealing with emotion, instruction, and contemplation—which planted the seed for The Cantos. He graduated with a BPhil in 1905, then studied Romance languages under Hugo A. Rennert at the University of Pennsylvania, obtaining his MA in the spring of 1906. He registered as a PhD student to write a thesis on the jesters in Lope de Vega's plays, and was awarded a Harrison fellowship and a travel grant of $500, which he used to visit Europe again. He spent three weeks in Madrid in various libraries, including one in the royal palace; he was actually standing outside the palace during the attempted assassination on 31 May 1906 by anarchists of King Alfonso, and left the country for fear he would be identified with them. He moved on to Paris, spending two weeks in lectures at the Sorbonne, followed by a week in London.
He returned to the U.S. in July, and his first essay, Raphaelite Latin, was published in Book News Monthly in September. In 1907, at the university he apparently annoyed Felix Schelling, the head of English, with silly remarks during lectures—which included insisting that George Bernard Shaw was better than Shakespeare, and taking out an enormous tin watch and winding it with slow precision—and his fellowship was not renewed at the end of the year. Moreover Schelling told Pound he was wasting his own time and that of the institution; Pound abandoned his dissertation and left without finishing his doctorate.

D. Teaching
In the fall of 1907 he took a job as a teacher of Romance languages at Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana, a conservative town that he called the sixth circle of hell, with an equally conservative college from which he was dismissed after deliberately provoking the college authorities. Smoking was forbidden, so he would smoke cigarillos in his office down the corridor from the President's. He annoyed his landlords by entertaining friends, including women, and was forced to move from one house after "[t]wostewdents found me sharing my meagre repast with a lady gent impersonator in my privut apartments," as he told a friend. He was eventually caught in flagrante, although the details remain unclear and he denied any wrongdoing. The incident involved a stranded chorus girl to whom he offered tea and his bed for the night when she was caught in a snowstorm; when she was discovered the next morning by the landladies, Misses Ida and Belle Hall, his insistence that he had slept on the floor was met with disbelief, and he was asked to leave the college. Glad to be free of the place he left for Europe soon after.

E. Imagism
Hilda Doolittle arrived in London from Philadelphia in May 1911 with the poet Frances Gregg and Gregg's mother; when they returned in September she decided to stay on. Pound introduced her to his friends, including the poet Richard Aldington, whom she fell in love with and married in 1913. Before then, the three of them lived in Church Walk—Pound at no. 10, Doolittle at no. 6, and Aldington at no. 8—and worked daily in the British Museum Reading Room.
At the museum he also met regularly with the curator and poet Laurence Binyon, who introduced him to the East Asian artistic and literary concepts that would become so vital to the imagery and technique of his later poetry. The museum's visitors' books show that Pound was often to be found during 1912 and 1913 in the Print Room examining Japanese Nishiki-e inscribed with traditional Japanese waka verse, a 10th century genre of poetry whose economy and strict conventions undoubtedly contributed to Imagist techniques of composition.
Pound was at that time working on the poems that became Ripostes (1912), trying to move away from his earlier work, which he wrote later had reduced Ford Madox Ford in 1911 to rolling on the floor laughing at Pound's stilted language. He realized with his translation work that the problem lay not in his knowledge of the other languages, but in his use of English:
What obfuscated me was not the Italian but the crust of dead English, the sediment present in my own available vocabulary ... You can't go round this sort of thing. It takes six or eight years to get educated in one's art, and another ten to get rid of that education.
Neither can anyone learn English, one can only learn a series of Englishes. Rossetti made his own language. I hadn't in 1910 made a language, I don't mean a language to use, but even a language to think in.
He understood that to change the structure of your language is to change the way you think and see the world. While living at Church Walk in 1912, Pound, Aldington, and Doolittle started working on ideas about language that became the Imagism movement. The aim was clarity: a fight against abstraction, romanticism, rhetoric, inversion of word order, and over-use of adjectives. Pound later said they agreed in the spring or early summer of 1912 on three principles:
1. Direct treatment of the "thing" whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.
Superfluous words, particularly adjectives, were to be avoided, as were expressions like "dim lands of peace," which he said dulled the image by mixing the abstract with the concrete. He wrote that the natural object was always the "adequate symbol." Poets should "go in fear of abstractions," and should not re-tell in mediocre verse what has already been told in good prose. A classic example of the style is Pound's "In a Station of the Metro" (1913), inspired by an experience on the Paris Underground. "I got out of a train at, I think, La Concorde, and in the jostle I saw a beautiful face, and then, turning suddenly, another and another, and then a beautiful child's face, and then another beautiful face. All that day I tried to find words for what this made me feel."

F. Controversial friendships, release
Although Pound repudiated his antisemitism in public, Tytell writes that in private it continued. He often refused to talk to psychiatrists with Jewish-sounding names, would refer to people he disliked as Jews, and urged his visitors to read the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903), a forgery claiming to represent a Jewish plan for world domination. He struck up a friendship during the 1950s with the writer Eustace Mullins, believed to be associated with the Aryan League of America, who wrote a biography of Pound, This Difficult Individual, Ezra Pound (1961).
Even more damaging was his friendship with a far-right activist and member of the Ku Klux Klan, John Kasper. Kasper had come to admire Pound during some literature classes at university, and after he wrote to Pound in 1950 the two became friends. Kasper opened a bookstore in Greenwich Village in 1953 called "Make it New," reflecting his commitment to Pound's ideas; it specialized in far-right material, including Nazi literature, and Pound's poetry and translations were displayed in the window. Kasper and another follower of Pound's, David Horton, set up a publishing imprint, Square Dollar Series, which Pound used as a vehicle for his tracts about economic reform. Kasper was eventually jailed for the 1957 bombing of the Hattie Cotton School in Nashville, targeted because a black girl had registered as a student. Wilhelm writes that there were a lot of perfectly respectable people visiting Pound too, such as the classicist J.P. Sullivan and the writer Guy Davenport, but it was the association with Mullins and Kasper that stood out, and it delayed his release from St Elizabeths. In an interview for the Paris Review in 1954, when asked by interviewer George Plimpton about Pound's relationship with Kaspar, Hemingway replied that Pound should be released and Kaspar jailed.
Eliot's friends continued to try to secure his release. MacLeish wrote to Hemingway in June 1957 asking him to write a letter on Pound's behalf. Hemingway believed Pound was unable to abstain from awkward political statements or from friendships with people like Kasper, but he signed the letters of support anyway, and pledged $1,500 to be given to Pound when he was released. Shortly after Hemingway won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, he told Time magazine that "this would be a good year to release poets."
In 1957 several publications began campaigning for his release. Le Figaro published an appeal entitled "The Lunatic at St Elizabeths." The New Republic, Esquire and The Nation followed suit; The Nation argued that Pound was a sick and vicious old man, but that he had rights too. In 1958 MacLeish hired Thurman Arnold, a prestigious lawyer who ended up charging no fee, to file a motion to dismiss the 1945 indictment. Overholser, the hospital's superintendent, supported the application with an affidavit saying Pound was permanently and incurably insane, and that confinement served no therapeutic purpose. The motion was heard on 18 April by the same judge who had committed him to St Elizabeths. The Department of Justice did not oppose the motion, and Pound was free.

G. Reception
Opinion varies about the nature of Pound's writing style. Critics generally agree that he was a strong lyricist, particularly in his early work. Scholars such as Ira Nadel see evidence of modernism in his poetry before he began the Cantos, and Witmeyer argues that, as early as Ripostes, a modern style is evident. His style drew on literature from a variety of disciplines. Nadel writes that he wanted his poetry to represent an "objective presentation of material which he believed could stand on its own," without use of symbolism or romanticism. The Chinese writing system most closely met his ideals. He used Chinese ideograms to represent "the thing in pictures," and from Noh theater learned that plot could be replaced by a single image.
Nadel argues that imagism was to change Pound's poetry. He explains, "Imagism evolved as a reaction against abstraction ... replacing Victorian generalities with the clarity in Japanese haiku and ancient Greek lyrics." Imagism, to Pound, was a form of minimalism, as represented by the two-line poem "In a Station of the Metro". However, minimalism didn't lend itself to the writing of an epic such as the Cantos, and so Pound turned to the more dynamic structure of what he considered Vorticism for the Cantos.
H. Translations
In his Fenollosa translations, unlike previous American translators of Chinese poetry, who tended to work with strict metrical and stanzaic patterns, Pound created free verse translations. Whether the poems are valuable as translations continues to be a source of controversy. Pound scholar Ming Xie explains that the use of language in Pound's translation of the Old English poem "The Seafarer" is deliberate, avoiding merely "trying to assimilate the original into contemporary language". After his work with The Seafarer, it was in the Japanese Noh plays that he found an answer to his search for anti-naturalist minimalism which occurred just prior to his initial work with Fenellosa's papers, leading to the translation of 14 Chinese poems in Cathay, published in 1915.
Neither Pound nor Fenollosa spoke or read Chinese proficiently, and Pound has been criticized for omitting or adding sections to his poems which have no basis in the original texts, though critics argue that the fidelity of Cathay to the original Chinese is beside the point. Hugh Kenner, in a chapter "The Invention of China" from The Pound Era, contends that Cathay should be read primarily as a work about World War I, not as an attempt at accurately translating ancient Eastern poems. The real achievement of the book, Kenner argues, is in how it combines meditations on violence and friendship with an effort to "rethink the nature of an English poem". These ostensible translations of ancient Eastern texts, Kenner argues, are actually experiments in English poetics and compelling elegies for a warring West.
Michael Alexander writes that, as a translator, Pound was a pioneer with a great gift of language and an incisive intelligence. He helped popularize major poets such as Guido Cavalcanti and Du Fu and brought Provençal and Chinese poetry to English-speaking audiences. He revived interest in the Confucian classics and introduced the west to classical Japanese poetry and drama. He translated and championed Greek, Latin and Anglo-Saxon classics, and helped keep them alive at a time when classical education was in decline, and poets no longer considered translations central to their craft.

I. Legacy
His own work apart, he was responsible for advancing the careers of some of the best-known modernist writers of the early 20th century. In addition to Eliot, Joyce, Lewis, Frost, Williams, and Hemingway, he befriended and helped Marianne Moore, Louis Zukofsky, Jacob Epstein, Basil Bunting, E.E. Cummings, Margaret Anderson, George Oppen, and Charles Olson. Hugh Witemeyer argues that the Imagist movement was the most important in 20th-century English language poetry because hardly any prominent poet of Pound's generation and the two generations after him was untouched by it.
As early as 1917 Carl Sandburg wrote in Poetry: "All talk on modern poetry, by people who know, ends with dragging in Ezra Pound somewhere. He may be named only to be cursed as wanton and mocker, poseur, trifler and vagrant. Or he may be classed as filling a niche today like that of Keats in a preceding epoch. The point is, he will be mentioned."
Beyond this, his legacy is mixed. Hugh Kenner wrote in 1951 that there was no great contemporary writer less read than Pound, though he added that there was also no one who could appeal through "sheer beauty of language" to people who would rather read poets than talk about them. The British poet Philip Larkin criticized him, "for being literary, which to me is the foundation of his feebleness, thinking that poetry is made out of poetry and not out of being alive."
His antisemitism became central to an evaluation of his poetry, including whether it was read at all. Wendy Stallard Flory argues that the best approach to.
Arthur Miller considered him worse than Hitler: "In his wildest moments of human vilification Hitler never approached our Ezra ...he knew all America's weaknesses and he played them as expertly as Goebbels ever did". The response went so far as to denounce all modernists as fascists, and it was only in the 1980s that critics began a re-evaluation. The critic Macha Rosenthal wrote that it was "as if all the beautiful vitality and all the brilliant rottenness of our heritage in its luxuriant variety were both at once made manifest" in Ezra Pound.

Mari Bergabung di Solo Mengajar

Poetry: Ancient Music

Ancient Music By Ezra Pound

Winter is icummen in.

Lhude sing Goddamm.

Raineth drop and staineth slop,

And how the wind doth ramm!

Sing :Goddamm.

Skiddeth bus and sloppeth us,

An ague hath my ham.

Freezeth river, turneth liver,

Damn you, sing Goddamm.

Damn you, sing Goddamm.

Goddam, Goddamm, ‘tis why I am, Goddamm

So ‘gainst the winter’s balm.

Sing goddamm, damm, sing Goddamm.

Sing Goddamm, sing goddamm, DAMM.